• Elders were responsible for transmitting language, culture, and traditions to younger generations
• Matai (chief) was a living archive and was responsible for remembering ancient folklore, family genealogies, and stories of the old gods and for passing this information to his successor and sharing it with family members
• The village, county, and district councils included hereditary chiefs and faleupolu (talking chiefs) who retained their own forms of meetings to discuss affairs of the village, county, or district, according to their own customs
• Everyone closely followed firmly established social hierarchies, customs, and courtesies
• Women were household laborers
• Men did tasks that required heavier labor
• Everyone participated to some extent in farming activities/chores

• Same as traditional

• Traditional chiefs supervised activities and had the final say in activities related to customs/culture

• Responsibilities in the community are prescribed by laws

Chamorro

• Family events (novenas, deaths) were supported by all family members, relatives, and neighbors
• Everyone helped discipline children; reciprocity (chenchule) was practiced
• Priests did everything in religious ceremonies
• Relatives did any work that required more people

Carolinian

• High clan’s chief gave orders and set events
• The government was a source for assistance

• Immediate families still play a major role in family events
• People now utilize caterers, church facilities, etc.; domestic helpers are common for small repairs and work in small farms
• Legislators are much more influential
  Community helpers from government and private sectors provide many services
• Catholicism or the Church also has a major influence on family events and fiestas

• Maga’lahi was high chief of the clan or village
• Maga’hága (female chief) also had leadership responsibilities
• Families worked together for all family functions
• Elders were responsible for instilling respect and obedience in the young
• Men fished, farmed, and hunted
• Women instilled and taught cultural practices and values, cooked, and managed the home

• Families continue the role of reciprocity and support in the family
• Families teach children about cultural responsibilities and practices
• New form of government with elected officials introduced roles such as governor, village mayors, legislators
• Church maintains religious and spiritual leadership

• Men built canoes, houses, etc., and were also in charge of community activities
• Women cooked, weaved, and took care of children

• Men do heavy work and are in charge of community activities
• Women continue traditional roles but are beginning to assert themselves (taking on men’s roles as leaders of small community groups, etc.)

• Individual roles were prescribed by family status
• Roles depended upon membership in a clan and its rank in Palauan society
• Even within a clan, there were tiers of power; leadership and roles were assigned according to this structure (strictly enforced)

• Individuals are still members of a clan
• Clan rankings are still the same
• Roles are not fully enforced; they are practiced in certain ceremonies only when required
• Leaders are elected based on popularity, financial standing, educational background, and other qualifications
• Elected leaders are expected to work side-by-side with traditional leaders

• Primary responsibility of people and families was to keep the community together and functional
• Village chiefs gave traditional titles – embedded in those titles were roles and responsibilities that linked the local economy with social functions to be performed at social gatherings
• In the chiefly structure, titles indicated types of servants and services with specific standard tasks, such as preparing food in the ground oven or on the chiefly platform/stage, preparing sakau, and distributing food to all titles and families
• Other roles and responsibilities included coordinating, stacking, and distributing local resources in preparation for the following year and knowing the correct traditional procedures to serve the chief with honor and respect
• Encouragement and support were emphasized in economic preparations, equitable distribution of titles, and cultivation of land
• Everyone did what they could to uphold the Pohnpeian social structure and move the society forward and in unison
  Families of certain clans were entitled to leadership, so each clan knew their roles in dealing with society

• Same as traditional
• Elected representatives are not always from the traditional chiefly clan – these new governmental workers are recognized by the traditional government and given titles to conduct other businesses or out-of-state dealings
• Anthropologists, foreign chiefs, Peace Corps volunteers, and others who are willing to learn Pohnpeian culture are also recognized by the traditional government and given titles (sometimes they do not understand all the roles and responsibilities embedded in the titles)

• Chief had the final say in activities that involved the whole community and related to customs and culture
• Alaps (heads of each clan) were the high chief’s decision making party and met to discuss affairs of the community
• Whole village helped build all canoes and houses
• Family events (deaths, weddings, first birthdays) were supported by all family members, relatives, friends, and neighbors

• Same as traditional but not as strictly enforced or widely practiced

• Roles and responsibilities were predetermined and ascribed to certain family and clan lineage
• Clan/family members knew their responsibilities
• Distribution of responsibilities was commensurate with the amount of goods/benefits to each clan

• Division of labor is less pronounced
• More people are assuming equal responsibilities
• Traditional roles and responsibilities are practiced/followed, when appropriate

• Village roles were available to chiefs, single men, and divorced/widowed untitled women born in the village
• Roles were acquired by age, kinship, cultural wisdom, and capability

• Distinct and additional roles are acquired through education and political appointments

• Traditional chief led community activities and negotiated between disputing clans, communities, and families
• Roles were handed down from generation to generation

• Roles are acquired by tradition, education, employment, and wealth

Chamorro

• Anyone with knowledge and skills in any role was recognized and utilized
• Those with wealth, money, and land were respected in the community

Carolinian

• Male child from high clan was well-respected, gave orders, and distributed resources to the community
• Adult men fished, built shelters, and did other hard labor
• Adult women prepared meals, tended taro patches, wove coconut fronds for shelters, wove mats, and raised children
• Young adults helped their parents or elders with daily chores

• College background/education is considered critical, especially in educating children

Chamorro

• Many roles exist (similar to continental U.S. in terms of government agencies)
• “Who knows who” is sometimes influential in acquiring roles

Carolinian

• Same as traditional

• Leaders were those with land, wealth, and high social status (the more land one owned, the higher the social status)
• Roles were achieved by age, kinship, and abilities
• High social respect was given to persons who were viewed as kind and helpful
• Spanish descendants of aristocracy became community leaders
• Traditional healers practiced medicine
• Lay prayer leaders (techa) led novenas and rosaries

• Material wealth is based on one’s personal wealth or ability to acquire it
• Leadership roles may be acquired through political election
• Professional roles are acquired through education and training
• Community social roles are gained through valued social and community work

• Roles were initiated in the home and community and were assigned based on reputations and family backgrounds
• Roles in homes were traditionally assigned for men/boys and women/girls
• Men did heavy work; women did light chores

• Roles remain basically the same
• More women go to school and are financial providers of family
• Some men clean and do household chores
• Some women farm

• The bai (Palauan men’s meeting house) sat on a stone platform foundation with long, flat, oval-shaped stones jutting out at each of the four corners; these four seats of power were for the four high ranking village chiefs (including the high chief); these four positions were available to clan members, usually but not always based on inheritance
• One available role was choosing leaders of men’s clubs
• Roles were assigned beginning from within the ongalek (nuclear family), then the telungalek (extended family or various houses), the kebliil (clans), and the beluu (village)

• Same as traditional but with less power and limited decision making
• Chiefs or elders are important in assigning roles
• Roles are associated with age, kinship, and cultural wisdom

• Clans fought over disputes about how to control a municipality, carry out responsibilities to serve the chief, and reciprocate services within municipalities
• Head of winning clan ruled the respective municipality, became the nahnmwarki (paramount chief), and instituted ways to solve the disputes
• Titles were categorized: at least 10 were ranked in the Oloiso line leading to the nahnmwarki and in the Serihso line leading to the nahnken
• Other titles included the saoun (village leader representing the nahnmwarki), working groups or economists, farmers, fishermen, canoe builders, carpenters, local medicine men, etc.
• Even young boys were given titles, which meant responsibilities
• Titles could change as one aged or worked harder – it was important to always strive for a higher-ranking title
• When given a title, a person reciprocated with tributes and feasts and remembered that titles were not permanent

• Anyone can apply for a government position; such positions are acquired through qualifications/education, family ties, or other political links and connections

• Roles were initiated in homes and communities and assigned according to reputations and educational backgrounds
• Political and religious leadership set good examples
• Roles in homes were traditionally assigned according to gender and age and passed down from generation to generation
• Women looked after children’s well being, cooked for the family, wove, and did other light work; young girls helped their mothers
• Men did heavy work around the house, fished, farmed, and made copra

• Roles are acquired through education, family ties, or political connection
• Because more women are employed, they are also financial providers for the family
• Some men stay home and do house chores

• Each community member had ascribed roles and responsibilities
• Each member was expected to participate in communal activities (fishing, community cleaning, house renovation and construction, boat and canoe building)
• Community members assisted each other in tasks too big for an individual or family to handle alone

• Qualified individuals (according to tradition, formal education, etc.) carry out different roles and responsibilities

• Traditional education was very relevant
• Schooling was considered an “at home” concept undertaken by both parents

• Roles are often acquired by people who have great knowledge of traditional concepts and are experienced with culture (raised/lived in the Samoan way)
• Sometimes successful schooling hastens the role acquisition process
• Those with government or private promotions must add status to their positions by receiving a traditional title from the family

• Families taught the roles that were relevant in the community

• Same as traditional, plus more formal education in school

Chamorro

• Formal education in the modern sense was nonexistent
• Traditional education dictated who acquired which roles

Carolinian

• Informal education (at home observing and being trained by role models) was relevant in acquiring roles

• Formal education is relevant, depending on the position

• Formal education was very limited except for the religious education of priests started by the Spanish
• Traditional roles were taught and handed down by parents and elders
• Families and elders taught the young their roles and responsibilities

• Formal education is very much valued and important for public leadership positions
• Most professional roles require formal education and training from accredited or licensed institutions
• Traditional roles are still taught by elders and families

• Education was not really relevant in acquiring roles
• Roles in the family, depending on the gender of the role, were passed on from generation to generation and depended on what society deemed appropriate for males and females

• Education plays a major part in getting government jobs and setting up private businesses
• Family roles are assigned by parents and based on family obligations and needs

• Parents taught children roles based on prescribed labor divisions and gender
• One could not assume a chiefly role without going through the formal traditional training while in seclusion
• Chief-to-be was groomed or educated to assume his role (schooled by those who were knowledgeable in protocol and proper etiquette)

• Cultural education and modern education are important in acquiring certain roles
• A person with a good education and other qualities (financial stability, bravery, reliability) is preferred to assume certain family/clan roles
• Selection of some roles (chiefs, traditional club leaders) still follows traditional ways

• Roles and responsibilities were predetermined by clan and gender
• Additional education in the traditional system included behavioral procedures of correctness, social etiquette, and honorary norms and values in the high-ranking positions
• Other education included training in using the honorary language and reciting traditional titles by rank (very useful when distributing resources)
• Formal schooling was not relevant in acquiring roles such as nahnmwarki (paramount chief)

• Same as traditional
• Important to maintain a good public relationship with decision makers
• College education or degree from prestigious institution is preferred
• Education is relevant to getting government jobs

• Formal education in the modern sense was nonexistent, but people with royal blood held high traditional roles in the communities
• Parents taught children roles depending on what they wanted them to do
• Children learned by observing what the elders were doing

• Formal education (graduating from high school and even a college or university) plays a major part in acquiring higher positions
• People look up to a person with a good education to obtain a family/community role

• Depending on nature of role, reputation of individual, place, and time, education mattered in the way that people accepted and respected another’s point of view
• In certain situations and places, education was not relevant in acquiring roles

• Those in government positions today were not necessarily chiefs before; some are from lower caste villages (their jobs depend on educational qualifications and personal characteristics)

• Children did light chores around the house and were expected to care for their siblings when they were capable
• Role learning began at puberty when males joined aumaga (young men of the village) and females joined aualuma (young women of the village)

• Same as traditional

• Boys helped their father; girls helped their mother

• Children help both their parents

Chamorro

• Children did household chores after school and during weekends

Carolinian

• Children learned by watching father (if boy) or mother (if girl) and observed and imitated what elders did

• Parents expect more of children who are in school
• Little expectation for children to do household chores because of the increase in number of domestic helpers

• Children did chores, gathered wood, fed the animals, and were expected to obey, respect, and help their elders
• Older children took care of younger siblings
• At an early age, children were taught social manners and good behavior

• Achievement in school is stressed by parents, so fewer chores and family responsibilities are given to children
• Children are indulged and allowed to express themselves freely

• Children helped with household chores
• Usually boys worked with father, girls worked with mother
• Parents decided roles for children

• Children gather firewood, clean yards, babysit, and do light chores
• Parents assign roles
• Adults do heavy chores

• Adults made decisions for children
• Children had to be obedient and respectful
• Young people (versus adults) were allowed to make mistakes
• Children’s roles in the family were based on prescribed and well-defined labor divisions
• Family/clan leaders delegated roles or responsibilities as children grew up

• Children’s roles are modified to follow different lifestyles and modern times

• Children were expected to help and serve older family members and care for younger siblings when capable
• Roles were obtained according to sex and maturity (more mature, more tasks)
• Responsibilities were taught in family units by both parents, older siblings, uncles and aunts, and other close relatives to maintain consistency in learned skills
• Women’s tasks for girls (cleaning house, planting certain types of crops, and child care)
• Men’s tasks for boys (climbing coconut/breadfruit trees, planting yams and sakau, caring for pigs, and fishing)
• These jobs and learning to perform the jobs are taught in family units

• Same as traditional
• Children are sometimes out of control, not returning straight home after school, going to different places, and worrying their parents
• With peers, children are likely to plan undesirable activities without telling their parents

• Roles were obtained according to gender and maturity
• Children were to obey, respect, and serve parents and elders
• Boys worked with fathers, girls with mothers (as delegated by parents and elders)

• Children tend to follow modern lifestyles, but they are still expected to respect their elders and do light chores around the house
• Parents assign roles to children

• Children were expected to do minor household chores, help in community activities depending on difficulty, and participate in educational activities
• Expectations came with age, maturity, and ability to perform certain tasks

• Same as traditional

• Issues were avoided by establishing/reinforcing the chief’s power to make ultimate decisions in family affairs

• Same as traditional

• People delegated the responsibility to others, made up excuses, isolated themselves, or moved away

• Same as traditional

Chamorro

• Chamorros did not participate in any functions or simply refused invitations

Carolinian

• Carolinians avoided getting involved in things they did not want to deal with by making up and giving good excuses

• Same as traditional

• Because confrontations were not acceptable, people ignored the problem and hoped it would go away or avoided the situation and made excuses

• Same as traditional

• People delegated things to others, did not show up to certain events/activities, or asked friends for help

• Same as traditional, as well as becoming ill, ignoring the situation, or creating excuses

• Palauans assigned the task to someone else or gave good excuses

• In addition to traditional ways, Palauans also outright refuse to do certain things or appeal to modern laws, rules, and regulations to refute traditional obligations

• In such a small, close-knit society, people did not avoid anything
• People who didn’t like doing something would work harder to earn a higher ranking title so they wouldn’t have to do it anymore
• Sometimes people made up excuses
• Complaining and criticizing often made decision makers think twice about a person, but refusing and avoiding was sometimes seen as an act of revolt

• Same as traditional
• Sometimes government workers can avoid doing certain contemporary things if their roles and responsibilities require them to abide by the traditional government system
• Because of education and the new perception of values, roles, and responsibilities, no-shows are often excused as having different views and values

• Marshallese gossiped, walked away, avoided doing things, or fought back

• Marshallese sometimes argue about why they should not have to deal with the issue or they leave everything up to others to take care of

• Responsibilities/situations were avoided by using common sense, doing what could be done to keep out of trouble, or ignoring others

• Same as traditional