NRP Plus: Technology and Literacy
An Update to the National Reading Panel Database (K-3)

Adam, N., & Wild, M. (1997). Applying CD-ROM interactive storybooks to learning to read. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 13, 119-132.
Elementary
This study examined how using CD-ROM interactive storybooks affects students’ attitudes toward reading. Of the 45 children in the study, 23 children were randomly assigned to the experimental group and 22 to a control group. Both groups contained reluctant and willing readers. Over 4 weeks, the experimental group read CD-ROM storybooks during sessions of at least 20 minutes every other day. Results showed that although the attitudes of willing readers remained unchanged, reluctant readers of both groups developed more positive attitudes about reading. Also, the reluctant readers of the treatment group preferred CD-ROM storybooks to traditional storybooks.

Barker, T., & Torgesen, J. (1995). An evaluation of computer assisted instruction in the phonological awareness of below average readers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13, 89-103.
Grade 1
This 8-week study investigated the effects of computer-assisted instruction in the phonological awareness of 1st graders who were also below average readers. 54 students were randomly assigned to one of three groups. One group received computer-assisted instruction with training in phonological awareness, one group received computer-assisted instruction with alphabetic decoding, and one group used computers to practice math skills. Pretests and posttests were administered. Results showed that students who received computer-assisted instruction with phonological training made significant gains in word recognition and phonological awareness.

Bornas, X., & Llabres, J. (2001). Helping students build knowledge: What computers should do. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual Education, 13, 267-280.
Grade 3
This 10-week study evaluated the role of computers in reading and math instruction. 60 low-achieving 3rd graders were randomly assigned to one of four groups: one receiving attentional instruction, one receiving computer-directed instruction, one receiving computer-assisted instruction and one control group. Students in the three treatment groups participated in 45-minute computer sessions twice weekly. The results of the achievement posttest showed no statistically significant differences among the groups; children in all groups demonstrated improved performance.

Calvert, S. L., Watson, J. A., & Brinkley, J. A. (1990). Computer presentational skills for poor readers’ recall of information. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 6, 287-298.
Grades K, 2
This study examined how well children recall information that is presented on a computer. The study included 40 each of kindergartners and 2nd graders. Each grade-level group included equal numbers of students with high and low reading ability. Children were then randomly assigned to view one of four versions of a computer presentation: one showed objects without action or labels, one used action but no labels, one used labels but no action, and one used both action and labels in presenting objects. The results showed that action presentation improved the recall of poor readers in 2nd grade, but did not affect the recall of good readers. Action presentation did not have a significant effect on kindergartners’ recall.

Chambless, J., & Chambless, M. (1994). The impact of instructional technology on reading/writing skills of 2nd grade readers. Reading Improvement, 31, 151-155.
Grade 2
This study compared computer-based and traditional instruction for 2nd grade students in order to determine which method of instruction would be more effective in improving student reading and writing achievement. During a school year, more than 1,000 students received computer-based instruction (the Writing to Write program); an equal number of students served as the control group. Pretests and posttests were administered. The results indicate that computer-based instruction had a positive effect on the reading achievement of African Americans of low socioeconomic status (male and female), white males of low socioeconomic status, and white females of high socioeconomic status.

Chang, L. L., & Osguthorpe, R. (1990). The effects of computerized picture-word processing on kindergartners’ language development. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 5, 73-84.
Grade K
This study evaluated the use of picture-word processing on the reading of four kindergarten classes: two classes (52 students) receiving treatment and two classes (51 students) serving as a control group. Over 6 weeks, children in the treatment group received four 15-minute sessions of picture-word processing instruction each week in addition to regular classroom instruction, while the control group only received regular classroom instruction. Pretests and posttests were administered. The results show that the children who received picture-word processing instruction made greater gains in reading than the children in the control group.

Davidson, J. (1994). The evaluation of computer-delivered natural speech in the teaching of reading. Computers and Education, 22, 181-185.
Elementary
This study measured both the intelligibility and the effectiveness of a computer system that gives spoken feedback during reading sessions. Pretests and posttests were administered. Children of different reading abilities from different grades were included in the 4-week study. Teachers continued regular classroom instruction for all students; children receiving treatment also used the computer systems daily in individual sessions. The results indicate that children found the computer generated speech as intelligible as that of the classroom teacher. The results also show that the children who received treatment demonstrated improvements in reading.

Davidson, J., Coles, D., Noyes, P., & Terrell, C. (1991). Using computer-delivered natural speech to assist in the teaching of reading. British Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2), 110-118.
Elementary
This study evaluated a computer-based reading instruction system. 13 boys and 7 girls participated in the study. All children were between the ages of 4 and 6, with different levels of reading ability. Pretests and posttests were administered. Teachers continued regular classroom instruction for all students; the 10 children receiving treatment also had daily individual computer sessions using headphones. The results showed that children found the computer slightly less intelligible than the teachers, although this may have been caused by the unfamiliarity of the voice and/or wearing headphones. The results also showed that both groups made gains in reading, with the treatment group showing more improvement.

Davidson, J., Elcock, J., & Noyes, P. (1996). A preliminary study of the effect of computer-assisted practice on reading attainment. Journal of Research in Reading, 19, 102-110.
Elementary
This study evaluated the effectiveness of computer-assisted practice on the reading achievement of 60 elementary students, ages 5 to 7. Pretests and posttests were administered. The treatment group and control group each had 30 children, with equal numbers of girls and boys. Over 4 weeks, teachers continued regular classroom instruction for all students; the 30 children receiving treatment also had daily individual computer sessions using headphones. The results suggest that computer-assisted practice may have a positive effect on improving reading performance.

Erdner, R. A., Guy, R. F., & Bush, A. (1998). The impact of a year of computer assisted instruction on the development of first grade learning skills. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18(4), 369-386.
Grade 1
This study investigated the effects of using computer-assisted instruction on 85 readers in the 1st grade. The study included a treatment group and a control group, with each group containing similar numbers of boys and girls. Pretests and posttests were administered. Over one school year, children in the treatment group received one hour of computer-assisted instruction weekly. The results suggest that boys may benefit more from computer-assisted instruction than girls.

Foster, K. C., et al. (1994). Computer administered instruction in phonological awareness: Evaluation of the DaisyQuest Program. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 27, 126-137.
Grade K
This study examined the effectiveness of the DaisyQuest program, a computer program that provides phonological awareness instruction. Two different experiments were conducted with kindergartners. In Experiment 1, 10 girls and 17 boys participated in the study. Over 4 weeks, children in the treatment group participated in twenty 20-minute sessions of the DaisyQuest program. Experiment 2 had a control group and a treatment group, with each group containing 35 children; the treatment group used the DaisyQuest program in sixteen 20-minute sessions over a 4-week period. The results showed that the treatment groups achieved higher gains in phonological awareness than the control groups.

Gambrell, L. B., & Bradley, V. N. (1987). Young children’s comprehension and recall of computer screen displayed text. Journal of Research in Reading, 10, 156-163.
Grades 3, 5
This study examined the effects of computer presentation on how young children understand and recall information. 26 children in the 3rd grade and 36 children in the 5th grade were randomly assigned to either a treatment group that read a story from a computer screen or a control group that read the same story from a printed page. The results showed that the reading comprehension of students was not affected by the method of presentation. Students indicated more interest in the story when it was presented on a computer screen, but they also felt that it was more difficult to read.

Gillingham, M. G., Garner, R., Guthrie, J. T., & Sawyer, R. (1989). Children’s control of computer-based reading assistance in answering synthesis questions. Computers in Human Behavior, 5, 61-75.
Grade 5
This study investigated the effects of computer-based reading assistance when children control the form or amount of assistance they receive. 30 “average learners” in the 5th grade were randomly assigned to one of three groups receiving different levels of assistance with a 250-word science text presented on a computer. All three levels included a reread prompt; one level also made other forms of assistance available and one level also prescribed specific forms of assistance. The results showed that the children who received prescribed forms of assistance made greater achievements than children who received minimal assistance or children who controlled the assistance they received.

Gore, D. A., Morrison, G. N., Maas, M. L., & Anderson, E. A. (1989). A study of teaching reading skills to the young child using microcomputer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5, 179-185.
Preschool
This study examined whether computer-assisted instruction may be used to teach young children to read. The study also investigated whether children can learn basic computer skills without direct instruction. 14 preschoolers from low-income families, 6 boys and 8 girls, participated in twice-weekly computer sessions for a 9-month period. Pretests and posttests were administered. The preschool curriculum eliminated the use of drill and practice in skills that are related to learning to read. The results indicate that computer-assisted instruction may be used to teach certain reading skills, and that children may develop computer literacy without direct instruction.

Greenlee-Moore, M. E., & Smith, L. L. (1996). Interactive computer software: The effects on young children’s reading achievement. Reading Psychology, 17, 43-64.
Grade 4
This 8-week study compared the reading achievement of two groups of above-average readers selected from two 4th grade classes when reading the same texts in different formats. One class read the texts from books, and the other used CD-ROM interactive software which presented the texts. The children read a selection of texts that included short, easy narratives and longer, more difficult narratives. The results showed no significant difference between the two groups for reading short narratives, but the group that read from computers showed greater comprehension of the longer, more difficult texts.

Hay, L. (1997). Tailor-made instructional materials using computer multimedia technology. Computers in the Schools, 13, 61-68.
Grade 4
This project investigated using technology to adapt the same reading materials to different levels of reading ability by providing scripts that were differently captioned, according to reading level. 240 children in the 4th grade from five schools participated in the project; approximately 10% of the children had some kind of disability (behavioral, physical, or learning). For 24 weeks, children participated individually in weekly 10-minute computer reading sessions, in which they viewed a video and received the same information from narration and captions. Three versions of the script were developed to accommodate different levels of reading ability. Although there may be many benefits of using technology to adapt materials for different reading levels, one significant benefit is that children may learn at their own level without the stigma of having been placed in a certain group according to reading ability.

Kinzer, C. K., et al. (1989). Simulation software vs. expository text: A comparison of retention across two instructional tools. Reading Research and Instruction, 28, 41-49.
Grade 5
This study compared the learning of 5th graders from two classes: One group used computers to learn about the food chain, while the other group read printed text. Both groups were taught in a whole-class environment, participated in prediscussion that helped children use background knowledge to aid comprehension, were given study strategies and guides, and were taught with visual overviews and conceptual maps. The results of the posttest showed that the group that learned without computers performed better than the group that used computers.

MacGregor, S. K. (1998). Use of self-questioning with a computer-mediated text system and measures of reading performance. Journal of Reading Behavior, 20, 131-148.
Grade 3
This study investigated the effectiveness of a computer-mediated text system on improving reading performance of average and good readers in the 3rd grade. 48 children were randomly assigned to one of four groups. Three groups used different versions of the computer test system: one version made a dictionary available, one version prompted students to ask literal questions, and one version had both a dictionary and questioning prompts. The control group read on the printed page with no additional assistance or instruction. Pretests and posttests were administered. The reading performance of children using the computerized text system improved; these gains may be attributed to learning to generate questions while reading.

McKeon, C. A. (2001). Email as a motivating literacy event for one struggling reader: Donna’s case. Reading Research & Instruction, 40, 185-202.
Grade 4
This case study examines the effect of using email correspondence on one struggling reader’s attitude about reading. A 4th-grade girl with below grade-level reading skills who had negative feelings about reading was selected to engage in an email correspondence with a researcher about a book she was reading as a classroom assignment. The student was also permitted to write emails that were primarily social and were unrelated to her assigned reading. Developing a relationship through email with the researcher and the social nature of the email correspondence, as well as the student’s ability to choose to write about herself and her life, appear to have been highly motivating for the student. The student’s teacher reported that the student’s self-confidence improved as a reader and writer.

Mioduser, D., Tur-Kaspa, H., and Leitner, I. (2000). The learning value of computer-based instruction of early reading skills. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16(1), 54-63.
Grade K
This study evaluated the use of computer-based instruction of early reading skills for kindergartners identified as high-risk for learning disabilities and reading disabilities. 46 children attending a special education kindergarten program were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a group that received instruction in reading with a special reading program that used both computer-based and printed materials, a group that received instruction in reading with only printed materials of the same special reading program, and a control group that was taught with only the regular special education kindergarten curriculum. The results showed that the children in the group that received reading instruction with both computer and printed materials showed greater improvement than children who received reading instruction with only printed materials or children in the control group.

Mitchell, M. J., & Fox, B. J. (2001). The effects of computer software for developing phonological awareness in low-progress readers. Reading Research & Instruction, 40, 315-332.
Grades K, 1
This 4-week study examined the effects of using computer software to provide phonological awareness training to at-risk young children. 72 participants, 36 each in kindergarten and in 1st grade, were randomly selected from a group of children who had been identified as at-risk. The children were then randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a group that received phonological awareness training from a computer, a group that received phonological awareness training from a teacher, and a control group that used computer programs for drawing and mathematics. The Phonological Awareness Test was administered as a pretest and posttest. The results showed that computer-delivered phonological awareness training can be an effective method of instruction.

Reinking, D. (1988). Computer-mediated text and comprehension differences: The role of reading time, reader preference, and estimation of learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 484-498.
Grades 5, 6
This study investigated differences in how 5th and 6th graders comprehend printed text versus computer-presented text accompanied by assistance options (e.g., definitions of difficult words or simplified versions of the text). Each of the 33 participants in the 5th and 6th grades read 4 short passages of under 200 words. There was one passage under each of four conditions: printed text only, computer-presented text with no options for assistance, computer-presented text with access to certain options for assistance, and computer-presented text with access to all options for assistance. The results showed that participants performed better when they had access to assistance options on computers.

Reinking, D., & Watkins, J. (2000). A formative experiment investigating the use of multimedia book reviews to increase elementary students’ independent reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 384-419.
Elementary
This project explored whether using multimedia book reviews might increase the amount and the diversity of independent reading by elementary students. Over one school year, 4th and 5th grade classes from two schools participated in the study. During the following school year, one 4th grade and one 5th grade class from another school participated. Students learned how to create multimedia book reviews that included sound and graphics for presentation to other students in the school’s media center. The Elementary Reading Attitude Survey was administered as a pre- and post-test. Teachers and parents reported positive changes in students’ reading attitudes and behavior. The researchers suggest that the success of the project may be partly due to the enthusiasm of teachers and students, as well as the engaging challenge of working with technology.

Reitsma, P. (1988). Reading practice for beginners: effects of guided reading, reading-while-listening, and independent reading with computer-based speech feedback. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 219-235.
Grade 1
This study evaluated the effectiveness of different kinds of reading practice with 72 children in the 1st grade who were randomly assigned to three reading practice conditions (guided reading, independent reading while listening, independent reading with self-selected speech feedback) and a control condition.
In all conditions, children read one passage daily for five days; in the practice conditions, each passage repeated 20 relatively difficult target words. A test of the target words was administered as both pre-test and post-test. The results showed that children who participated in guided reading and independent reading with self-selected speech feedback achieved greater gains than children who read while listening or children in the control group.

Reitsma, P., & Wesseling, R. (1998). Effects of computer-assisted training of blending skills in kindergartners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 301-320.
Grade K
This study examined the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction of blending skills for 98 Dutch kindergartners. Pre-tests and post-tests were administered. 25 children received computer instruction in blending skills; 28 children received computer instruction in vocabulary; and 45 children, who served as the control group, did not receive computer instruction. The results showed greater improvement in the blending skills of children who received computer instruction.

Roth, S. F., & Beck, I. (1987). Theoretical and instructional implications of the assessment of two microcomputer word recognition programs. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 197-218.
Grade 4
This study evaluated the effectiveness of two word-recognition software programs in improving word recognition/decoding skills in African American 4th graders of low socioeconomic status. Over an 8-month period, three 4th grade classes used the software programs. There was also a control group that did not receive any additional reading instruction. Two standardized achievement tests were used as measures. The results showed that poor decoders who used the software programs improved their decoding skills, but children who already had adequate decoding skills did not show improvement. Using the software programs also led to greater reading comprehension at the word and sentence level, but children did not demonstrate increased comprehension at the passage level.

Underwood, J. D. M. (2000) A comparison of two types of computer support for reading development. Journal of Research in Reading, 23, 136-148.
Primary, Secondary
These two studies compared two computer software programs: an Integrated Learning System and software that presents a “talking book” for primary and secondary school students. The first study investigated the use of an Integrated Learning System. Nine schools participated: five schools providing students for treatment and control groups, and four schools providing students for treatment only. Pre-tests and post-tests were administered. The schools controlled the amount, frequency, and duration of the students’ computer sessions. In general, children benefited from using the software, but the effectiveness of the program varied, depending on how schools integrated the software with normal classroom activities.
The second study investigated the use of “talking book” software with 62 children, age 8, who were matched into pairs based on reading ability. Improvement in reading was measured by a comprehension test and a recall activity. The results showed that children did learn when using the software.

Van Daal, V. H. P., & Reitsma, P. (2000). Computer-assisted learning to read and spell: Results from two pilot studies. Journal of Research in Reading, 23(2), 181-193.
Grade K, Elementary
These two pilot studies examine the effectiveness of a software program in helping kindergartners learn beginning reading and spelling skills. The first study, which lasted 4 months, included 21 children who were designated by teachers as ready to begin reading: 9 were randomly assigned to the treatment group that used the software, and 13 formed the control group and did not use computers.
Pre-tests and post-tests were administered. The results showed that children who used the software had improved in word recognition and decoding skills. In the second study, 14 children, ages 8 to 12, who were designated as poor spellers by teachers, used computers at least three times per week to practice spelling in 5-minute sessions for about 6 months. A standardized spelling test was administered as a pretest and posttest. The results showed that practicing spelling on the computers was beneficial for low-motivated children.

Vollands, S. R., Ropping, K. J., & Evans, R. M. (1999). Self-assessment of reading comprehension with the Accelerated Reader: Action research. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Reading Difficulties, 15, 197-211.
Grade 6
This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Accelerated Reader software program with two projects undertaken at two elementary schools in a low socioeconomic status area of Scotland. Each school had a treatment group and a control group. The treatment groups had access to the Accelerated Reader programs for 6 months. Two norm-referenced standardized reading tests were administered to measure achievement gains; the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey was also administered. The results showed that using the Accelerated Reader program led to gains in reading performance for the treatment groups and also led to improved reading attitudes for girls.

Weber, W. R., & Henderson, R. (1989). A computer-based program of word study: Effects of reading and spelling. Reading Psychology, 10, 157-171.
Grades 3, 4, 5
This study examined whether a computer-based word study program would improve elementary students’ word recognition, spelling, and reading-aloud performance. 31children in the 3rd, 4th and 5th grades who scored at the 4th grade-level on the Qualitative Inventory of Word Knowledge were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions or a control condition. One group used the computer word study program in daily 10-minute sessions for 2 months; one group used the computer word study program in daily 10-minute sessions for 1 month; and the control group received regular classroom instruction only. The results showed that children who used the word study program improved in word recognition.

Weller, L. D., Carpenter, S., & Holmes, C. T. (1998). Achievement gains of low-achieving students using computer-assisted vs. regular instruction. Psychological Reports, 83(3, Pt. 1), 834.
Grade 5
This study evaluated the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction for low-achieving 5th graders. 63 students received daily computer-assisted instruction in reading and mathematics; a control group of 48 children in the 5th grade received only traditional instruction. The Iowa Test of Basic Skills was administered as a pre-test and post-test. The results showed that the group that received computer-assisted instruction achieved greater gains in reading.

Wise, B. W. (1992). Whole words and decoding for short-term learning: Comparisons on a “talking computer” system. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 147-167.
Grades 1, 2
This study compared three methods of presenting words on a “talking computer system” to 1st and 2nd graders. 56 1st graders and 56 2nd graders of low to average reading ability used a “talking computer” to study 36 words over 2 days. The children were divided into four groups. Each group studied a set of 9 words at a time, using one of these presentation methods: whole word, syllable, subsyllable, or single grapheme-phoneme segmentation. The children were tested before and after each set. The results indicated that, for short-term learning, presenting whole words is as effective as segmenting words into grapheme units.

Wise, B. W., Olson, R. K., & Treiman, R. (1990). Subsyllabic units in computerized reading instruction: Onset-rime vs. postvowel segmentation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 1-19.
Grade 1
This study investigates whether onset-rime segmentation (dividing syllables into subsyllabic units such as CL-AP or D-ISH) may enhance reading instruction. Three experiments were conducted in which 20 children in the first grade (8 girls and 12 boys) studied words displayed on a “talking computer.” In Experiment 1, children studied words that had four letters but only three phonemes. In Experiments 2 and 3, children studied words of four letters and four phonemes. The results showed that onset-rime segmentation was more beneficial to the short-term learning of single four-letter words than segmentation after the vowel.

Wise, B. W., Ring, J., & Olson, R. K. (1999). Training phonological awareness with and without explicit attention to articulation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 271-304.
Elementary
This study examined the role of articulation in phonological awareness training of 7 to 11-year-olds. 122 children in grades 2 through 5 from five schools were assigned to one of three experimental conditions involving different combinations of phonological awareness training methods: one that included explicit attention to articulation and manipulation; one that included explicit attention to manipulation but not to articulation; and one that included explicit attention to articulation but not to manipulation. A control group was composed of students from three other schools. The study included intervention, pre-tests and post-tests, and follow-up one year after the training. The results showed that all of the children who received all three types of phonological awareness training achieved significant gains, outperforming children in the control group on reading tests and tests of phonological skills.

Wise, B. W., Ring, J., & Olson, R. K. (2000). Individual differences in gains from computer-assisted remedial reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 197-235.
Elementary
This study examines how individual differences in children affected outcomes from 29 hours of computer-assisted remedial reading in 200 children in grades 2 through 5. All of the children had reading difficulties. 109 children were assigned to the group that received phonological analysis instruction and 91 children to the group that received instruction in reading comprehension. Children in both conditions received 20 hours of individual computer practice and 7-9 hours of small group instruction. The study used the same tests as pre-tests and post-tests, with a reduced set of tests also given 9 months and 2 years later as follow-up. The results showed that poor readers who had phonological training achieved greater improvement than poor readers who received reading comprehension instruction.

NRP Plus Bibliography: Technology and Literacy PDF (408K)